Tertiary Societies: Circumpolar Societies in Transition and Self-determination

• What are Tertiary Societies?
  
• The result of a desire for self-determination “rejection of colonialism”
• Characterized by: Rejection of previous dependence, which made it difficult or impossible to foster development of political and other institutions
• Attempts to build autonomous and effective local institutions
• Healthier, more balanced societies; outward looking
• Social capacity for criticism; increasing self-sufficiency in research.

Indigenous Self-Determination:
· Land- authority over its use
· Supports traditional activities; economic base for government
· Participation- as equals in economy and life of the state
· To ensure indigenous perspectives taken into account; to work toward self-sufficiency
· Money- to fund government; compensation; enable development

Limits to Self-determination:
· Indigenous peoples and sub–national units remain within the notion-state- subject to absolute limits
· Southern environment has limited carrying capacity
· Not inexhaustible; sustainable requires voluntary limits
· Constitutions reserve certain powers to federal governments.


Saami still fighting for land rights in Norway

• The Saami Parliament, which represents the estimated 80,000 Saami who live in Norway, was shocked when the Norwegian government presented its proposals on how to deal with land management in Finnmark - the region Saami know as Sapmi.
  
• The Finnmark Act was to be the result of a process that started when Saami protested the construction of a hydroelectric project in Alta, Norway more than 20 years ago. A Saami Rights Committee presented proposals for new land management legislation in 1997 that would recognize their traditional land rights and ownership.


• Saami fear the present Finnmark Act, if adopted, would open their region to more industrial development and militarization.


• That's because the act doesn't recognize any traditional Saami ownership of the land - and expands the land rights of non-Saami in the region to all European Union citizens.
  The new law would also safeguard the rights of the Norwegian government to expropriate land for public purposes without compensation, and establish a review committee on which Saami wouldn't even hold the deciding vote

Secondary Societies: Colonialism and Collectivisation in the North

Indigenous People of Northern Russia

• Approximately 20 million people living in Northern Russia, are mainly concentrated in towns and settlements along the rivers and in the industrial centres. Only about 180,000 of them belong to approximately 30 small-numbered, aboriginal groups - the indigenous peoples of the North. Their majority live in small villages close to their subsistence areas, where they pursue traditional occupations like reindeer-herding, hunting and fishing. But the reality these people face today is anything but an idyllic carryover from the past.


• Since the colonisation of the North, large expanses have gradually been converted into areas for alien settlement, transportation routes, industry, forestry, mining and oil production, and have been devastated by pollution, irresponsibly managed oil and mineral prospecting, and military activity.


• In tandem with the environmental disaster went the social decay of the indigenous societies since the early Soviet era, with collectivisation of subsistence activities, forced relocations, spiritual oppression, and destruction of traditional social patterns and values. The result was the well-known minority syndrome marked by loss of ethnic identity, unemployment, alcoholism, diseases, etc.

Secondary Socities: War in the Circumpolar

Battle of the Aleutian Islands

• For fifteen arduous months, American forces in the Aleutians suffered through Arctic gales, bitter cold, and painful isolation as they fought to eject the Japanese from Attu and Kiska islands. The Aleutian Campaign claimed thousands of lives and culminated in one of the deadliest battles in the Pacific.
• In a tragic and shameful episode, the U.S. government forcibly removed nearly 900 Unangan (Aleut) people from their homes in the Aleutian and Pribilof islands in 1942. These innocent civilians were taken to Southeast Alaska and placed in internment camps, where they spent the next three years in squalid and appalling conditions.
• The islands had very little strategic value for either side, but control of the Aleutians would prevent a possible U.S. attack across the Northern Pacific
• Similarly, the U.S. feared that the islands would be used as bases from which to launch aerial assaults against the West Coast, and it became a matter of national pride to expel the first invaders to set foot on American soil since the War of 1812
• But Japan lacked both a long-range bomber and the resources to establish and operate an air base in the Aleutians.

The DEWLine

• The Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line began on 15 February 1954 when President Eisenhower signed the bill approving the construction. It, was designed and built during the "Cold War" as the primary line of air defence warning of "Over the Pole" invasion of the North American Continent.


• The actual construction of the 58 sites took place between 1955 and 1957. Many tons of supplies and equipment were moved to the Arctic by air, sea and river barge. One such carrier, the USAF 62nd Airlift Wing, moved over 13 million pounds of materiel in this monumental effort. The DEW Line was declared fully operational on 31 Jul 1957, (ref: USAF Museum "This week in Airforce History), and remained in operation for better than 30 years.

Arms Race

• The term arms race in its original usage describes a competition between two or more parties for military supremacy. Each party competes to produce larger numbers of weapons, greater armies, or superior military technology in a technological escalation.
  Perhaps the most prominent instance of such a competition was the rapid development by the United States and the Soviet Union of more and better nuclear weapons during the Cold War


• The Soviet Union devoted their command economy to the arms race and, with the deployment of the SS-18 in the late 1970s, achieved first strike parity. However, the strain of competition against the great spending power of the United States created enormous economic problems
  
• Another prime example of an arms race is during the period leading up to World War I. Several European nations competed to build up their military capacities, and this arms race is thought to be one of the many causes of the war.

North American Fur Trade and Industrialization of the North

• The fur trade in North America began almost as soon as Europeans began their explorations of the North American mainland. This is a brief description of the most significant events in the 250 years during which the fur trade flourished. This period of time can be roughly divided into three sections, the "French Era" from 1600 to 1760. The "British Era" from 1760 to 1816. And the "American Era" from 1816 to 1850.


• The North American fur trade was a central part of the early history of contact in The New World (North America) between European-Americans and American Indians. In 1578 there were 350 European fishing vessels at Newfoundland and sailors began to trade metal implements (particularly knives) for the natives' well worn pelts. The worn pelt was always highly desired by the Europeans as the outer coarse guard hair was worn off and the addition of human oils combined to make a particularly soft and beautiful result.
  
• Fur (especially beaver) was prized and very expensive in European markets
• At first, fur was not the most important thing that was traded. Then, around the year 1600, something happened: hats made from beaver felt became very fashionable. Everybody wanted one! At the same time, beavers were becoming extinct in Europe.
• Explorers continued to look for the Northwest Passage. In 1576 Martin Frobisher sailed on the first of his three voyages. John Davis continued the search, and Henry Hudson discovered the bay that was named after him.
  These men and others began mapping the land and the waterways. This would become important for both the fur trade and the exploration and settlement of Canada.
• the first commercial corporation in North America and largest fur trading company in the world, The Hudson's Bay Company.
  

(Student Note: I chose the region of Finland to discover the settlement and idustrilization of this country because I know little information on this country, and it is an interesting place in the circumpolar world.)

Settlements and Industrialization of Finland

Population trends in Finland in the 18th and 19th centuries were characterized by powerful fluctuations. The birth rate was close to 40 per 1000 inhabitants and the death rate about 25 per 1000. The development of agriculture and the expansion of urban trades accelerated population growth, while wars between Sweden and Russia, and disease and food shortages reduced the rate. It has been said that the last natural disaster to befall a European people took place in Finland at the end of the 1860s. The reasons for the disaster in question are to be found in the climate; summers were wintry and frosts destroyed the harvests in two consecutive years. Widespread famine ensued and the death rate rose temporarily to almost 80 per 1000.

Increased industrialization in Finland has steadily raised the proportion of the population living in urban areas; by the late 20th century about three-fifths of the total population lived in cities and towns. Farms are most commonly located in the meadowland regions of the southwest, where the fertile land is suitable for mixed farming. In the north farmers usually concentrate on small dairy herds and forestry. In Finnish Lapland there is some nomadic life based mainly on the reindeer industry. The major urban settlements are all in the southern third of the country, with a large number of cities and towns concentrated on the coast, either on the Gulf of Finland, as is the capital, Helsinki or on the Gulf of Bothnia, as are Vaasa and Oulu (Uleåborg). The only town of any size in the north is Rovaniemi, capital of the lääni of Lappi. Helsinki is the largest city, with a population about three times that of Tampere (Tammerfors) and of Turku, the country's capital until 1812.

Secondary Societies: European Contact and Theories of Change

Expeditions and Explorers

• The first known Europeans to contact the Americas were the Vikings ("Norse"), who established several colonies in the Americas.
• Leif Erikson established a short-lived settlement in Vinland, present day Newfoundland. Settlements in Greenland survived for several centuries, during which the Greenland Norse and the Inuit people experienced a mostly hostile contact. By the 15th century the Norse Greenland settlements had collapsed.
• In 1492 Christopher Columbus reached the Americas, after which European exploration
  and colonization rapidly expanded. The post-1492 era is known as the Columbian Exchange period.


• The European lifestyle included a long history of sharing close quarters with domesticated animals such as cows, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, and various domesticated fowl, which had resulted in epidemic diseases unknown in the Americas.
• Thus the large-scale contact after 1492 introduced novel germs to the indigenous people of the Americas. Smallpox (1525, 1558, 1589), typhus (1546), influenza (1558), diphtheria (1614) and measles (1618) epidemics swept ahead of initial European contact killing between 10 million and 112 million people, about 95% to 98% of the indigenous population.
• The population loss and the cultural chaos and political collapses it caused greatly facilitated both colonization of the land and conquest of the native civilizations.

European Encounter with Inuit
Inuit and Norse encounters are known through Norse legends and archaeological evidence. The Norse crossed Greenland to reach the Arctic and there they traded with the Inuit whom they called skraelings, Norse for heathen. In Newfoundland, considered part of the Arctic region because of the Beothuk who inhabited the island, the Norse built a settlement at L'Anse aux Meadows. Norse documentation indicates that they settled there around 1,000 years ago to facilitate trade with the Natives. According to Norse legend, the Beothuk were open to trade and enjoyed the iron goods they received in exchange for furs. The L'Anse aux Meadows site was abandoned shortly thereafter, but the Norse continued to trade with First Nations peoples along the Atlantic coast. Timber, fish, walrus, and polar bear meat were sought after by the Norse traders, but this trade declined after the fourteenth century.
European explorers captured or lured Inuit, and later, First Nations, onto their ships and brought them back with them to Europe

Sub-Arctic: Chippewyan and Dene
The various peoples of the Sub-Arctic region had either relatively early or relatively late contact with Europeans, some as late as the twentieth century. Those bands that occupied territories in coastal regions were more likely to come into earlier contact. Athapaskans participated in the fur trade, and in the whaling and fishing industries. For the interior bands, sustained contact often did not occur until the nineteenth century.

Short Time Line
waterborne exploration and expansion

1450-1559 Laying the foundation of early modern Europe

• Rise of modern science
• Portuguese’s voyages of exploration
• Discovery of the new world Development of industrial capitalism
• Humanism and new learning Revolution and reformation of the church
  
• 1450-1499
• 1473-6 Christian 1 of Denmark sends an expedition to Greenland to resume contact with Norse there; also looking for NW Passage
• 1480- Bristol merchants send out ships to prospect across the Atlantic (the Iceland trade lay behind this, and the knowledge of Greenland)
• 1480- Alphonse V of Denmark sends another expeditions west
• 1488- Cape of good hope is rounded
• 1492- Christopher Columbus reaches the west Indies
• 1492-Arctic thought to consist of four large land masses around the North Pole; two are extensions of Lapland and Greenland 1493-John Cabot to Newfoundland
• 1494-Treaty of Tordesillas
  
• 16TH CENTURY: Sailing the World
• 1500-Brazil is described
• 1504-First Breton fishers on Grand Banks
• 1513- America is recognized as a separate continent
• 1516- Proposal for a search for NWP fails for lack of willing crew
• 1517- Martin Luthers 95 Thesis signal beginning of reformation
• 1520-Magellan sails discovers straits of Magellan
• 1527- First English proposal for projects to reach china via north given to Henry 7th rejected
  
• A hundred Years:
• 1689-1789 New forms of government emerging From wars for control in Europe
• 1688-1721 From decline of some monarchies (Holland and Sweden) From new ideas about human and states Origin of enlightenment
• 1687-1715 Early enlightenment
• 1715-1748 Mature enlightenment
• 18th century
• 1712- American vessel takes a sperm whale: inaugurates American deep-water whaling treaty of Utrecht
• 1721- Hans Egede colonizes Greenland and establishes community; trade expands Bering
• 1725-42: Vitus Bering explores the bring strait and north cost of Siberia Russian GNEX led by Bering, Chirikov, Khariton, and Dmitri, Laptev, Cheelyuskin and others to the Bering sea and Arctic Siberia.

First Colonies: Faeroes, Iceland, and Greenland

Norse Vikings

• Famed for their longships, Vikings, in three centuries, founded settlements along the coasts and rivers of mainland Europe, Ireland, Normandy, the Shetland, Orkney, and Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland circa 1000.
• The term Viking commonly denotes the ship-borne warriors and traders of Norsemen (literally, men from the north)

Time Table of Norse History in Greenland
982-985
Erik the Red explores and names Greenland, after being outlawed for three years on account of manslaughter in Iceland.
986
Southern Greenland is settled by Erik the Red as he leads the first settlers from Iceland. Erik the Red settles in Brattahlid (today's Qassiarsuk) which becomes the center of the Eastern Settlement.
1000
Leif Eriksson, son of Erik the Red, returns to Greenland from Norway, bringing along the first Christian missionary. Soon hereafter, the first Christian church on the North American continent, Thjódhildur's Church, is built at Brattahlid.
1124-26
Greenland becomes a diocese of its own.
1480-1500
The Norse population of Greenland disappears.

Peoples of the Reindeer

REINDEER

• The reindeer is a deer living in flocks in the northernmost parts of Europe, Asia and North America.The reindeer are a ruminant and both the male and female reindeer carry antlers. It does not take to heat very well and tends instead to seek the high mountains during hot summer days.In the summer the main food is grass, leaves, herbs and fungae, of which the reindeer builds its fat to last the poor grazing of the winter. Then it feeds largely on various lichens and shrubs, continuously using the fat saved up during summer.
  
• The reindeer is well adapted to snow and cold. The winter fur is thick, consisting of a layer of wool close to the skin and long hairs covering it, filled with air. The reindeer can save both water and energy when it is cold. The supply of winter grazing depends not only on the size of the grazing land and its supply of lichens but even more so on the availability of the food. Ice crusts on the ground or a hard ice surface on the snow are among the greatest problems for reindeer herding. The grazing conditions on large clear cuts are worsened due to unfavourable snow quality and damaged lichens. The lack of tree pendent lichen is a serious risk for malnutrition for the reindeer when the grazing from the ground is inavailable on large areas.

REINDEER RESOURCES

• The reindeer have been a valuable resource for the Sami and other herding cultures. It is difficult to imagine the Sami surviving without the reindeer. In traditional herding, reindeer were used for food, clothing, trade (reindeer as a form of money), and for labor. Even before reindeer herding began the Sami lived on wild reindeer.
• Before the 17th century the Sami were able to live on wild reindeer for clothing and meat. They would have a few tame reindeer as draft animals.
• The Sámi people do not own any land. The right to free access to grazing for the reindeer is based on old customary rights.
• Like the Sami many other traditional Reindeer herders do not own any land, and they must migrate with the herds in order to obtain the substance of the reindeer.
  

HERDING SEASONAL ROUND

Spring Winter (March-April)

• In March and April the movement from the winter grazing land to the summer and calving lands in the mountains takes place.
• The mountain reindeer seeks out its calving place on the south slopes of the low mountains or in the sparse mountain birch region where bare spots on the ground show early.
• The food consists mostly of lichens.

Spring (April-May)

• In May the reindeer calves are born in the low mountains and in some regions in the forest land.
• The reindeer cows ordinarily have their calves on the same time and place each year
• The reindeer cow has one calf per year, weighing 4-6 kilos.
• The calf from the previous year is rejected before or during the calving. During this time the grazing consists of lichens, grass, herbs and leaves.
• The calving time is very sensitive to disturbances since the reindeer cow easily might abandon the new-born calf due to too much disturbance.

Beginning of Summer (June)

• After the calving time a calm period arrives for both the reindeer and the herders. The reindeer now seeks out birch forests, marshes and brooks where the fresh vegetation comes quickly.
• Fine grazing in the beginning of summer gives the grown reindeer the opportunity to gain whatever weight they might have lost during winter.
• For the reindeer herder this is a time of building and repair of enclosures, buildings and other facilities for reindeer herding.

Summer (June-July)

• This is the time when the reindeer go high up into the mountains or on the wide ranges where the heat and the insects are less bothering. The reindeer are especially sensitive to parasite flies with reindeer as hosts.
• This is an extremely hectic time for the reindeer herder, working evenings and nights for several summer weeks, taking advantage of the cooler climate at night. The collecting of the reindeer can take many days, according to the weather conditions.
• In the enclosure the calf follow the reindeer cow. This makes it easy to spot the ownership of the calf. With the lasso one catches the calf and marks it. The mark is a combination of cuts made in the calf’s ears. Each owner has his special mark.

Autumn (September-October)

• The reindeer are mostly in the low mountain region. The early frost nights in late summer lessens the nutrients of the grazing.The reindeer dig up roots and plant parts.
• The first snow influences the reindeer’s choice of grazing plants, and they mostly eat various ground lichens. In the latter half of September the bull slaughter is completed.
• It is a calm period for the reindeer herder, who now has time for fishing for household needs and other things needing tending to in a reindeer herding enterprise.

Beginning of Winter (November-December)

• This period begins when frost and snow stays permanently. The reindeer look for grazing land with remainders of green vegetation, grassy forest areas and marshes.
• During the beginning of winter the reindeer are gathered for separation into winter groups and for slaughter. The main part of the autum slaughter is done in November-December.
• After the slaughter the winter herd consists of some 75 per cent female animals. This is also the time to divide the reindeer into their respective winter grazing group.

Winter ( December-March)

• In the winter land the various winter groups graze in the coniferous forest belt mainly. The grazing mostly consists of lichens and berry plants. The reindeer is well adapted to an arctic climate.
• Winter grazing is the limiting factor in reindeer herding. The great problems are icing of the grazing land or hard ice crusts on the snow. Snow conditions for the reindeer deteriorate due to large clear cuts with unfavourable snow conditions and destroyed or damaged lichen cover.
• Winter groups therefore have to move between different grazing lands. The task of the reindeer herder in winter is to guard the edges of the herd and protect it from predators.